Article for Non Experts Artificial Intelligence

Article for Non Experts Artificial Intelligence Introduction Calculators cannot be regarded as intelligent machines since they are not capable of working in the absence of human beings and cannot be taught. They are basically made to solve problems that people can readily solve. Regardless of speed and the complexity of mathematical problems that they can solve, all that they do is to accept some input and generate desired output.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Article for Non Experts: Artificial Intelligence specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They may be fast but that does not mean they are intelligent since they only generate what was previously programmed and fed into them. According to Levy (2010) â€Å"the aim of Artificial Intelligence is not to regurgitate what has previously been programmed by merely solving a problem. Artificial Intelligence should instead help humans come up with entirely new and different ways of solving problems†. Unlike other disciplines that are well defined, Artificial Intelligence (AI) lacks clear details that can readily make it to be understandable. We all know how easy it is to distinguish between chemistry, physics, astronomy, biology, mathematics, languages, art, and music because all these disciplines are well defined (Russell and Norvig, 2006). There lacks clear definition of AI that can be widely accepted, in other words AI lacks clearly defined goals. Artificial Intelligent systems should be able to learn from experience with the aim of improving themselves, in other words, intelligent machines should be those that are capable of learning. History of Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence may seem to some to be one of the recent subjects of study given its close association with computer technology. On the contrary, AI has a long history which can be traced back to imagination, philosophy and fiction. Disciplines such as engineering, electronics and others that were invented long ago have had their fare share of influence on AI. Historically, people are know to have applied the use of AI in areas like learning, deduction, and knowledge representation as well as translation, associative memory, theorem translation etc. Artificial Intelligence has historically existed in the realms of theory. It all began when Homer wrote some mechanical articles about â€Å"tripods† waiting to serve the gods at dinner, thus, imaginary mechanical characters have been part of human culture from antiquity.Advertising Looking for article on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, it’s only after renaissance about half a century ago that the AI scientists undertook to build machines that imitated human thought and intelligent behavior with the aim of testing whether Homers theories could be put to practice. As demonstrated in some films like the terminator, Robocop, transformers and ot hers, prospect of machines that can mimic human beings remains in the future but discussion on the implication of such a reality should be encouraged at whatever cost (Levy, 2010). With an earth whose population has hit a record high of over seven billion and still rising, problems facing humanity are bound to escalate. Terrorism, diseases without cure, global warming, and increasing cases of financial insecurity even among the developing countries as demonstrated by movements like we are the ninety nine percent can overwhelm human beings at some point in future. Perhaps the invention of intelligent mechanical beings can be the only solution to social, economical and political woes that may overwhelm humanity. Like the ancient philosophers, should not the modern human being who relies on machines more than ever before stretch his imaginations once more and save humanity from a hoard of current and future problems that are all so real? Perhaps governments will some day be required to relocate people to some other planet due to overpopulation on earth. Descartes who is a famous philosopher suggested the possibility of inventing intelligent machines to help human beings discover who they truly are. Machines can eventually help bring about actual civilization by eliminating limitations of human intelligence that is prone to bias and that can be easily corrupted. Mechanical men designed to reason like human beings can help eliminate inefficiency in human institutions. They can be used to settle disputes in courts by using mechanical reasoning devices that use rules of logic. Prior to the invention of calculators, mathematics was a preserve for the few. Its invention did not render the mathematicians obsolete but strengthened their skills all the more and made it possible for many more others to learn the discipline much efficiently and effectively thereby improving humanities output or productivity. In Jewish folklore, there is this artificially created being calle d Golem that is akin to Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein. Such imaginary characters have always fascinated human imagination. However, such characters have always fueled irrational fear of intelligent machines among people. The first machine that seemed to emulate human thought was the chess playing machine invented in eighteenth century. Chess is a game that is intellectually demanding since it requires application of too much thought. People often believed that Turk was able to think on its own and thought that the machine could play against a human counterpart on its own.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Article for Non Experts: Artificial Intelligence specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, unlike other people, a newspaper writer was able to observe that Turk was a machine since it played so well. It made flawless moves. Imagine a society where no professional ever made a mistake, would it not be perfect and ideal for human existence. Diplomatic rows would be solved free of human emotion and would be based on tradeoffs or win win solutions thereby making wars to be a thing of the past. No one would ever have to lose his life because of misdiagnosis by a doctor or faulty sentence handed over by a judge to an innocent citizen. The initial studies of AI involved chess which was used for studying inference. In 1997, AI proved to be no maniac’s delusional imagination when the world chess champion, Gary Kasparov was defeated by Deep Blue Program designed to test relevance of artificial intelligence. Buddhist views on Artificial Intelligence Philosophy plays a major role in determining what direction is taken by the AI researchers. It is well understood that AI systems cannot be built in the absence of undivided attention from human mind given the very nature of the subject. Another thing that one ought to bear in mind is that AI is a multi-disciplinary subject that requires close cons ultations among stakeholders from all other disciplines. Given that Human mind is the most intelligent thing on record, researchers naturally applies the knowledge they have gathered so far concerning its workings in building AI systems. According to Hagen (1999) â€Å"the Buddhist perspective on AI is a controversial one given the belief that the only way an individual can achieve enlightment is by suppressing every plan and calculation made by the mind â€Å". According to Buddhism, an enlightened individual is devoid of common intelligence that shows how the world is made of interacting parts. The individual sees the world differently, he does not plan, classify, build mental assumptions to accommodate his observations and cares little if his actions should succeed or fail. Contrary to this belief, AI researchers’ endeavors to equip their systems with the ability to learn from past observations or with knowledge derived from day today experiences of the researchers thems elves. Artificial Intelligence systems use bits or parts of different information to arrive at decisions. This means that when designing an AI system, one cannot help but divide the world into interacting parts that can either be relevant or irrelevant depending on the decisions that are to be made by the system. All successful robots and programs are based on this premise. Despite their usefulness to human and environment, Buddhists consider this to be against the natural state of human mind (Hagen, 1999).Advertising Looking for article on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Buddhism teaches that all is flux and nothing abides. According to this principle there is no rule or regulation that can be applied constantly with success since change cannot be stopped from taking place by words written in any language. Any concept becomes obsolete with time. Buddhism teaches that change affects everything including our mind and ego that most people consider to be constant. This means that there can be perceptions without a perceiver or feelings without a feeler, interesting indeed (Hagen, 1999). Buddhism teaches that everything is intimately interconnected and that reality cannot be a composition of parts. This means that everything is everything else. Thus, subdividing reality into parts will eventually provide wrong results. This concept is referred to as chaotic system. This kind of system cannot be divided into parts with limited controllable interaction. In such a system, work input does not equal work output since a minor change in output can lead to outpu t that is non-proportionately big and with unpredictable changes. An example of such a system is the weather. Predicting weather often involves segmenting a certain area of interest into smaller parts and then applying simplified rules to each section. The results obtained from each section are combined and calculation of effects of each part of the other parts is done. However, it is a well known fact that not even the strongest of the super computers ever get to produce accurate weather predictions. According to Buddhism, it would be impossible to predict the weather by splitting it into parts. The only way of predicting it would be by considering it to be part of a whole. This means that one must take into account everything that can directly or indirectly affect the weather, such as the motion of an insect, heat generated by bacteria or even the light emitted by distant galaxies which has the potential of increasing the energy of a few air molecules. According to Buddhism, an in telligent machine can only be created when it is given both the power to think and to become enlightened. Creating a mind that can be enlightened can be a real challenge for developers of AI systems. Artificial Intelligence and Global Risk The greatest mistake that is often made by people is to assume too quickly that they understand something. Most people profess to understand the concept of genetically modified organisms, evolution and even artificial intelligence. Advocates of AI agree that AI is known for promising so much while at the same time delivering too little. AI is certainly not a simple subject, but people often treat it as some sort of fantasy subject that requires little or no attention. This is embarrassing indeed. Consider other disciplines like astronomy whose reputation never gets ruined by promising to create stars from hydrogen and then failing to create even a tiny one. This clearly shows that AI is not a complicated discipline but rather people tend to think they know a lot about it than they actually do. Villains, dignified men, men of collar you name them, none if asked to press a button that would lead to total destruction of the world would ever agree. They all need a platform from where each can carry out his noble or ignoble duties. Speaking thus, the destruction of the world would definitely be more of an accident than design. Human thought works in a way that allows it to provide accurate or approximate answers. People can easily tell what risks are capable of causing deaths more than others. However, when asked to be precise, they tend to overestimate risks that cause few deaths and underestimate those that can cause more deaths. This shows that human thought is often faced with the risk of making errors. Once a group of people were asked by a researcher to estimate the likely causes of deaths in United States, majority of them noted down that homicide caused more deaths than diabetes. Other studies have consistently proven tha t human judgment cannot be free of errors. Reports from various quarters noted that people were unwilling to buy flood insurance policies even when they were heavily subsidized. People tend to underestimate threats that can jeopardize their lives due to floods. They are simply not able to conceptualize or imagine a threat that has never taken place (Levy 2010). People living in flood prone areas will often take comfort of levees and dams built to control floods. However, what they forget is that serious damage could occur should a single uncontrollable flood strike. If people get used to controlling minor threats, they soon become reluctant and tend to treat the occurrence of major hazards as unlikely. Talk of dangers that threaten the very existence of man and nobody will take you serious for no such danger has ever faced humanity. Can machines use thought to assist human beings? The search for intelligent life in outer space is nothing new. Through Search for Extra Terrestrial Int elligence program or SETI, scientists have tried without success to determine whether other animals other than man possess intelligence or whether there is possibility of intelligent beings that live in outer space. All these efforts have born no fruit. It must feel lonely indeed being the only beings who are self aware in the universe. There are numerous fiction movies like star wars and the likes that suggest the possibility of developing artificial intelligence in machines in incredible ways. If anything, achieving such levels of intelligence in machines is still a pipe dream that is yet to be achieved. This does not mean that artificial intelligence is not in use today. Factories use robotic arms that can handle delicate tasks. Cars are fitted with micro computers that can detect slight changes in driving style and road conditions. The problem is whether AI researchers are able to come up with intelligent machines that are capable of engaging humans in objective dialogue. To und erstand how this is possible, it would be proper to discuss the difference between people and computers. Logic in man is not equivalent to computer logic which is discrete. This means that a computer cannot give you any other answer other than a single answer that it was initially programmed to give. This makes it possible to easily plot a computer’s decisions on a decision tree. Each set of discreet decisions taken is represented by a single node. This gives ability to the computer system to be able to search and understand every single one of these decisions. On the other hand, people do not make static decisions. For instance, if a group of persons were to be asked to state whether Lake X which is 960 feet deep is deep or not they can either give a yes or no answer. This kind of logic referred to as fuzzy logic is certainly not solid. It is mostly based on an individual’s opinion. For a computer, the answer is definite. The answer given b y the computer will have be en obtained from some programmed rule like, â€Å"Less than 500 feet shallow, yes, more than 500 feet, deep, and no†. Humans are what they are today as a result of millions of years of evolution. Creating a machine with all human ability within a short period of time would definitely be a daunting task given all the stages that humans had to go through. Intelligent machines would therefore have to undergo evolutionary processes similar to those of humans in order for them to gain from enough experience and obtain intelligence equivalent to that of humans. Measuring amount of intelligence obtained through a certain degree of evolution can be quite difficult. 60 years ago, a method to determine the level of machine intelligence in comparison to that of man was invented and given the name Turing Test. Turing Test Alison MathisonTuring is a scholar who happened to be an outstanding mathematician. He wanted to establish whether it was possible for computer program to possess intel ligence. He devised certain rules that would enable him accomplish his task. The rules were in form of a game commonly called the game of imitation. It involves a group of three people playing together, (A) a man, (B) a woman, and (C) an interrogator who can either be a male or female. C is locked in a room separate from the rest. The interrogator is supposed to identify between A and B which is the machine and who is a person. C does not know the exact names of A and B since they have been labeled X and Y respectively. The interrogator is supposed to say what he or she thinks of x and Y i.e. X = A or X= B, and Y =A or Y=B. The interrogator asks A and B questions (Penrose, etal, 2009). Turing suggested that if the responses of a computer were real enough, it would be impossible to distinguish between the real person and the computer. People have always wondered whether Turing test was designed to test the smartness of a human as opposed to machine intelligence of fooling the interro gator. Turing test has been used to develop most of the modern chat programs that tends to fool a person that they are conversing with a human. The person conversing with a human and a machine is made to believe before the game starts that he will be playing with a man and a woman. When the game is over, he or she is asked to state what player between A and B he or she would assign machine status. If the integrator is unable to tell the difference between the machine (advanced computer) and human, then the computer is deemed to have passed intelligence test (Levy, 2010). The test normally takes five minutes. Scholars have argued that this test cannot be used to define artificial intelligence for a number of reasons: A computer can imitate human behavior but not necessarily true intelligence. A computer can be intelligent but not able to chat like a real person. Turing Test Turing Test cannot articulate consciousness in a machine. Humans sometimes exhibit totally irrational, cha otic, unpredictable and unintelligent behavior. There is also some intelligent behavior that is uncharacteristic of human nature. Artificial intelligence can be faced with major setbacks indeed. For instance would such machines be able to experience pain and pleasure, make generalizations, generate ideas, use commonsense and so on. Such questions can make the idea of trying to build artificial intelligent systems to seem absolutely ludicrous. Does this mean that efforts to create artificial intelligent systems should be abandoned, absolutely not? One cannot understand something that cannot be created. Artificial Intelligence Case Study Somewhere in St. Leo Laboratory, Eddie Brown is fine tuning the behavior of a machine. Scattered around him is a horde of robots some of which resemble small all-terrain motor vehicles. They appear to be kind of lifeless and slow pieces of electronic gadgets. However, these contraptions are kind of curious in that reason bout the environment and react to surrounding changes. Literary speaking, these machines can â€Å"think†. Eddie, a senior artificial intelligence researcher compares the minds of these contraptions to those of knowledgeable insects that have learned to survive. A housefly is intelligent in that it is able to adapt to surroundings by doing those things which it can do well so as to increase its chances of survival. Eddie states that, going by that definition of intelligence, these robots are smart. Researcher Eddie (left) In a different Laboratory located elsewhere, Eddie collaborates with fellow researchers in the school of computing to build artificial intelligent systems that can make complicated decisions. These researchers have been charged with the task of exploring new applications. This is a project of DARPA or defense advanced Research Projects agency. The robots designed should be able to perform two important tasks. First, they should be able to learn from the researchers how to search for bio logical hazards in rooms. Second, they should be able to detect, intercept and destroy a moving enemy target. The robots should be able to perform these tasks without any assistance from the researchers. Most universities focus on building robots with low-level performance with basic system guided movements. There are some that embark on projects to build machines with a higher level of reasoning. Researchers in Georgia school of computing are doing everything to integrate the different levels of functionality to build robots with human like behavior for use by private sector and the military (Brooks, 2009). Building machines which simulate human knowledge and awareness is no mean task. Consider the case of a common human driver on a highway or a route he or she is used to. This person will drive along at ease without being conscious of the act of driving. This is called reflexive behavior. However, if the driver gets lost, he becomes conscious of driving as he or she tries to find the way out. This is called cognitive reasoning. The artificial intelligence researchers endeavor to make intelligent machines that can think and act as well as be able to learn and apply the required skills. This task lies squarely within the jurisdiction of specialists who can develop high level, behavior based software for robots. This system of software borrows heavily from neuroscience and psychology. Eddie uses this set of software to control hardware. Sensors are used to enhance both the software and the hardware and help develop and sustain methods through which robots can acquire and process data that they are able to perceive in real time using data and other information from global positioning satellite. Conclusion Just like humans, intelligent machines in the foregoing case can be assisted to gain knowledge through the use of various techniques. The most common technique if the Learning Momentum which was discovered by a person called Arkin and his team mates. The robot is taught that if a behavior has nothing wrong with it, then it should continue repeating it. The other technique is the reinforcement technique. This is just like the stick and carrot technique used to teach kids. Computer generated rewards are used to encourage the robot every time it makes good decisions thereby making it continue repeating the same. The foregoing project undertakes to investigate ways through which intelligent systems can get to interact with humans by instilling psychological properties in them. Other than the project that was just discussed, researchers from the College of Computing have undertaken to develop a group of 100 miniature robots to imitate a large scale system that includes different genre of machines, humans and robots. The group of robots is expected to work together in an environment they are not used to and which is subject to change from time to time. Sensors are allowed to be erroneous and able to gather information from different points. The sensors should be able to help the robots detect the movement and position of their counterparts. This acts as the principle means of cooperation and communication. This system is akin to that found in a colony of termites or bees. The robots will be able to act properly after a long duration of time since they will have been able to identify wrong moves made due to sensor errors. In other words the robots will have used intelligence to solve movement and spatial problems. Hindrances to advancement in the field of artificial intelligence range from intelligence, ethical, conscience, perception, locomotion and power storage (Russell and Norvig, 2006). References Brooks, R. (2009). Intelligence without representation . The Case Study of Artificial  Intelligence. 5 (47), 7-23 Hagen, S. (1999) Buddhism Plain simple, New York, NY: Broadway Books. Levy, S. (2010) Artificial Life: a Quest for a New Creation, New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Penrose, R., Shimony, A., Cartwright, S., Alfred o, H. (2009) The Small, The Large, and  The Human Mind, New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Russell, S. and Norvig, O. (2006), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Beginner German Mistake der Freund

Beginner German Mistake der Freund The word Freund in German is at times ambiguous since it can mean either friend or boyfriend. The same with Freundin, which can mean either a female friend or a girlfriend. The use of der Freund/ die Freundin relies on contextual cues to give you an accurate meaning. Consider the Following Sentences Er ist mein bester FreundMein amerikanischer FreundMein Freund HeinzEr ist ein Freund fà ¼rs LebenWir sind FreundeEr ist ein Freund von mirEr ist mein FreundEr ist ein FreundEinen festen Freund habenEin echter FreundMein echter freundHast du einen Freund?Ist er dein Freund?Hast du Freunde?Ich war mit einem Freund im Urlaub Which of the above sentences signify â€Å"friend†, which ones â€Å"boyfriend†? Fortunately, Germans have construed set phrases to differentiate between the two. To mean strictly a friend, er ist ein Freund/ sie ist eine Freundin von mir is usually said. To add more â€Å"amore†, then the possessive pronoun will be used: er ist mein Freund/sie ist meine Freundin. If you want to talk in general about a boyfriend/girlfriend, simply einen Freund haben/eine Freundin haben or einen festen Freund haben/ eine feste Freundin haben will do. For example, if you wanted to ask somebody if she has a boyfriend, you could say either Hast du einen festen Freund? or Hast du einen Freund? But remember above all, context is key. Avoid the Embarrassment In order to not mix up a friend with a boyfriend and avoid some eyebrow raising, a good rule of thumb to keep would be the following: Usually anything with a possessive pronoun such as mein (except for mein bester Freund and other phrases, see below), and fest can be safely considered to be boyfriend territory. Take note however that women are more apt to call their female friends meine Freundin, whereas men prefer to introduce their male friends as ein Freund von mir. The term ein Freund (without von mir tagged behind it) can be interpreted either way depending on the context and the speaker’s intent. Keeping all this in mind, the aforementioned phrases could be translated as follows: Er ist mein bester Freund. (He is my best friend.)Mein amerikanischer Freund. (My American boyfriend)Mein Freund Heinz. (My boyfriend Heinz)Er ist ein Freund fà ¼rs Leben. (He is a friend for life.)Wir sind Freunde. (We are friends.)Er ist ein Freund von mir. (He is a friend of mine.)Er ist mein Freund. (He is my boyfriend.)Mein guter Freund. (My good friend.)Er ist ein Freund. (He is a friend.)Einen festen Freund haben. (To have a boyfriend.)Ein echter Freund. (A true friend.)Mein echter Freund. (My true friend/My real boyfriend.)Hast du einen Freund? (Do you have a boyfriend?)Ist er dein Freund? (Is he your boyfriend?)Hast du Freunde? (Do you have friends?)Ich war mit einem Freund im Urlaub. (I was on vacation with a friend.) Why the Ambiguity? It is interesting to note that the Old High German word for Freund, namely friunt as well as the Middle High German vriunt was used interchangeably with both close friends and relatives even up till the 1700s. The meaning of Freund can be traced back to the pre-Old High German word frijond which was the present participle of the verb frijon, ‘to love’. Further, Germans tend to use the word Freund less liberally than Americans, since ein Freund is really reserved for close friends. In less close-knit friendships, the other person is often considered by Germans to be â€Å"ein Bekannter† or â€Å"ein Kumpel.† Synonyms for Freund: der Kamerad, der Kumpel, der Kollege, der Gefhrte, die/der Atze (Berlin).Synonyms for Freund as Boyfriend/Girlfriend: der Geliebte/die Geliebte, der Lebenspartner/ die Lebenspartnerin, der Lebensgefhrte/ die Lebensgefhrtin.Expressions with Freund: das Freund-Feind-Denken an â€Å"if you’re not for us, you’re against us† way of thinkingDas habe ich ihm unter Freunden gesagt that was just between the two of us

World Bank Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

World Bank - Essay Example The fundamental role of the Bank has undergone various conflicting opinions. Some of the shareholding countries borrow from it while others may provide fund. It is a financial intermediary working for the advancement of the national interest of the countries. The project brings forth the role of World Bank towards the international public policy management in the present scenario. It includes conflict prevention and changing international environment, fighting poverty, the health and food provisions for the poor countries, monitoring various socio-economic conditions, helping for improving global trading, project structuring and its monitoring and much more. World Bank has various international public policies and instruments which are used for the betterment of various countries especially in the conflict affected countries. It works at different levels according to the different phases of conflicts, analyzing them and implementing those into strategies and programs. One of the special measures taken is for poverty reduction and other for the Low-Income Countries Under Stress (LICUS). For the implementation of these policies and instruments the Bank has started for the Watching Brief where normal Bank assistance will not be possible; e.g. Haiti, Somalia, Sudan. It would allow the Bank to maintain minimum level of engagement, to monitor evolving socioeconomic conditions as well as the prospects to change. This would allow the Bank to re-engage with additional activities whenever needed or asked by the countries. (AEA, 2004)1 Another policy adopted by World Bank is the Transitional Support Strategy (TSS). It is a short to medium term Bank assistance strategy for the countries that do not have Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) or the ones that are not still ready for CAS e.g.: Afghanistan, Sierra Leone, Timor-Leste while in transition from conflict. The main objective of this policy is peace and recovery along with the needed assistance. With the stages of Watching Brief and TSS the World Bank would be able to assist even under full fledged CAS. These three levels of engagement are set out in OP/BP 2.30 and provide enough flexibility to the Bank for its involvement and assistance. CPR unit has also developed a Conflict Analysis Framework (CAF) to help Bank analyze more systematically while preparing policies, strategies and programs (CPR 2002e).2 World Bank also takes initiatives in project design and its implementation in developing countries. For Example in the recent project assessment for Sri Lanka the lack of sensitivity to any conflict may also constrain World Bank's interventions (World Bank 2003b)3. World Bank and IMF are the world's largest public lenders and help avoiding Great Depression-like economic disasters. But this help comes with strings attached in the form of policy perceptions as "structural adjustment policies". It means across the country privatization of public utilities and publicly owned industries. It focuses resources on growing export crops for industrial countries than supporting family farms for local communities. This has led to serious problems of inequality and environmental destruction in Latin America, Africa and Asia. (WBIMF, 2007) 4

APPLIED E BUSINESS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

APPLIED E BUSINESS - Essay Example ing and Mortgage disclosure Act), according to this new law, it became obligatory for the lenders to disclose their lending procedure to the common public (Squires 7). The year after the passage of HMDA experienced the acceptance of CRA (Community reinvestment Act) because analysis showed that the amount being invested in meager areas was quite low (Ross 44). The Act made it obligatory for the banking institution to provide loans to all the people available in the market; provide the facility of depositing money to limited areas and develop reports regarding the habit of lending and submit the report to the federal body. These reports aided in evaluation of the applicants when these applicants made request for conducting takeovers and amalgamations. The practices made by the Act were not implied on the credit unions as these unions were not as large as the banks of that era. According to the definition of credit unions, these unions are allowed to restrict the amount of money they le nd to people sharing similar characteristics such as work and educational institute. The outcome of the CRA act was that there was a sudden increase in the amount borrowed by people living in areas that consist of low to middle income earners. The research conducted by San Francisco Fed showed that the amount of money borrowed by low income earners for the purpose of purchasing homes elevated by 37% during the period of 1993 to 1997 and during the same period, the amount borrowed by middle income earners elevated by 32% (Laderman 2). During the same era, the number of buying and selling offers of home made by lower middle income earners increased by 43% and for low income earners it increased by 43% (Laderman 2). This era even witnessed an increase in the borrowing conducted by high income earners by 17% and middle income earners by 23% (Laderman 2). Those in the favor of the act believed that these achievements were caused due to the act, while during the same period increase in

Political Philosophy and Medium-paragraph Length Answer Essay Example for Free

Political Philosophy and Medium-paragraph Length Answer Essay Provide a medium-paragraph length answer to each question below (using full and complete sentences). The questions are about the readings listed on the syllabus for 2/19 and 2/26. 1. Identify and explain the two objections that Michael Sandel raises about Jeremy Bentham’s philosophy of Utilitarianism. 2. What are the three types of policies and laws that Michael Sandel identifies as being commonly rejected by libertarians? Briefly explain each type of policy, and explain why libertarians are philosophically opposed to them. 3. According to Mary Anne Warren (in â€Å"On the Moral and Legal Status of Abortion†), what are the five central criteria for moral personhood, and what are the implications of this criteria on the issue of whether or not the fetus has the right to life? 4. According to Don Marquis (in â€Å"Why Abortion Is Immoral†), what is the property that the fetus possesses which makes abortion an immoral act? Why does Marquis say that abortion is just as wrong as killing an innocent adult person? 5. Judith Jarvis Thomson (in â€Å"A Defense of Abortion†) makes an argument about the morality of abortion when the pregnancy is due to rape by creating a fictitious example about being hooked up to an unconscious violinist. What are the elements of her example that make it analogous to the situation of pregnancy due to rape? What is the conclusion she draws about the morality of abortion in this situation, and what is the basis for this conclusion? Submission Guidelines Include your name and the assignment name (Homework Assignment 1) in the text of the document Include your name and the assignment name (Homework Assignment 1) in the name of the file that you submit.

Economics of Tobacco Sales :: Economics Essays

H1 States with Smoking Bans and Cigarette Sales Each year 440,000 people die, in the United States alone, from the effects of cigarette smoking (American Cancer Society, 2004). As discussed by Scheraga & Calfee (1996) as early as the 1950’s the U.S. government has utilized several methods to curb the incidence of smoking, from fear advertising to published health warnings. Kao & Tremblay (1988) and Tremblay & Tremblay (1995) agreed that these early interventions by the U.S. government were instrumental in the diminution of the national demand for cigarettes in the United States. In more recent years, state governments have joined in the battle against smoking by introducing antismoking regulations. In a research article by Gallet (2004), several aspects of the clean indoor-air laws were closely examined. Set apart from other literature on the same topic, Gallet (2004) proposed that the degree of enforcement of these laws was just as important as the laws themselves. States that maintained the most restrictive clean-air laws encouraged much more competition within the cigarette industry; hence prices were adjusted closer to marginal cost which caused the availability of supply to increase (Gallet, 2004). Conversely, Keeler, Barnett, Manning, & Sung (1996) concluded that the price adjustment closer to marginal demand could be explained as an attempt to compensate for the reduction of demand caused by the antismoking laws. Regardless of the opinions of the papers on this aspect of the clean indoor-air laws, both agreed that state regulations that prohibit or limit smoking in public places decreased the cigarette demand. Extraneous variables, excluding state smoking restrictions, may influence state cigarette sales. State cigarette sales may be influenced by â€Å"bootlegging,† identified as the crossing of state lines to purchase cigarettes in a state that sells cigarettes at a less expensive price (Gallet, 2004; Meier & Licari, 1997). Gallet (2004) identified â€Å"bootlegging† as Nprice, or the minimum neighbor state price ($). As stated previously, Gallet (2004) examined not only states with clean indoor-air laws, Clean1, but also the degree to which these laws were enforced within the individual states, Clean2. The consensus of the reviewed literature, those both including and excluding the extraneous variable, found that the institutions of state smoking bans affect cigarette sales. Discussion The results of this study are consistent with the overall literature’s findings (Gallet, 2004; Meirer & Licari, 1997) that states with smoking bans have a decrease in cigarette sales. However, caution is warranted in the true reliability of the data presented in this study, because of the nature of the data.

Discuss Research Into The Breakdown Of Romantic Relationships

One piece of research into the breakdown of romantic relationships is from Duck (1982). According to his phase model of the breakup of a relationship, it all begins with the breakdown of the relationship where there is dissatisfaction within the relationship. These dissatisfied partners then begin to consider all the problems within the relationship, thinking mostly about the relational ‘costs’ which develops a resentment for the relationship. This is known as the intra-psychic phase.Once a threshold of being unable to withstand the relationship anymore, the dissatisfied partner expresses their uncertainties about the relationship and so the dyadic phase has been reached and the couple will re-assess their goals, possibilities and commitment. If this is not successful, the social phase has been reached where the decision to leave the relationship is made and is publically discussed between third parties. Next, self-justifications and version-makings of the breakup are of fered, which is known as the grave-dressing phase.Finally, the individuals will attempt to recreate a sense of their own social values, by preparing for different types of future relationships and knowing what they wish to get out of them, known as the resurrection process. The evolutionary perspective on relationship breakdown is another explanation into the breakdown of romantic relationships. Perilloux and Buss (2008) have developed an explanation of why evolution might have shaped the behaviour of rejecters and rejectees differently. Their research is based on four main predictions.The first prediction is the costs related to emotional investment. In a relationship, women will consider the costs of losing the stability of a relationship whereas, if a male has high emotional investment in a relationship, he is more likely to share his resources. However, if the relationship breaks down, the male may leave his children unsupported. This highlights the importance of a males resourc es to the female, who will experience higher costs associated with the loss of emotional investment from their male partner.The second prediction is increasing commitment as a response to the threat of a break up. A woman will value emotional commitment highly in mates, especially to ensure the survival of any offspring, so males threatened with relationship breakdown may employ strategies to exploit this, possibly increasing their commitment for example, by suggesting marriage. The third prediction is infidelity. This may be a deliberate attempt to break up a relationship with a relatively poor-quality mate, in order to make way for a higher-quality mate.The final prediction is managing reputational damage where a rejecter may be perceived as being cruel and heartless by peers, whereas the rejectee is frequently perceived as the victim. In order to prevent any reputational damage, the rejecters will be motivated to minimize any reputational damage and make efforts to be seen as rea sonable and compassionate rather than cruel and heartless. A strength of Duck’s phase model is that it is supported by observations of real life break-ups.Researchers Tashiro and Frazier (2003) surveyed undergraduates who had recently broken up with a romantic partner and they reported that they not only experienced emotional distress, but also personal growth. These students reported that breaking up with their partner had given them new insights into themselves and a clearer idea about future partners. Through grave-dressing and resurrection processes they were able to put the original relationship to rest and get on with their lives.However, a weakness of this study is that Tashiro and Frazier surveyed undergraduates, meaning that they may not have been in a relationship for a long time so therefore would not experience the stages of breakdown as such because they are much younger so therefore may not take into consideration the loss of costs so this therefore weakens the validity of their study. Another strength of Ducks phase model of breakdown is that the model stresses the importance of communication in relationship breakdown.Paying attention to the things that people say, the topics that they discuss and the ways in which they talk about their relationship offers both an insight into their stage and also suggests interventions appropriate to that stage. If the relationship was in the intra-psychic stage for example, repair might involve re-establishing a liking for the partner, possibly by re-evaluating their behaviour in a more positive light. In the later stages, different strategies of repair are appropriate such as in the social phase, third parties may be able to help the partners patch up their differences.This highlights the positive implications of the model, and how it can help couples amend the relationship, despite reaching later stages. However, a weakness of Duck’s phase model and research into rejecters and rejectees is that there are ethical issues within the breakdown research. When carrying out research in this sensitive area, it often raises issues of vulnerability, privacy and confidentiality. For example, a woman in an abusive relationship may fear recrimination from her abuser should he discover her participation in the research.Ultimately, the researcher faces a choice of protecting a participant’s safety or pursuing this valuable information. Therefore, it is hard to measure the issues which led to the breakdown effectively. A limitation of the evolutionary perspective on relationships is that it is deterministic. The evolutionary perspective neglects personal choice and environmental influences, claiming that human behaviour is influenced by adaptations that developed in the Stone Age. This makes sense only if the environmental challenges remain static over evolutionary time.However, if the environment is dynamic rather than static, then the only human that would be adaptive is one tha t is flexible and responsive in any social and physical environment they are in. In some environments, it may be adaptive for males and females to act in the ways suggested, but not in all. For example, nowadays, due to changes within our environment it has enabled women to be less dependent on men for their resources. This therefore challenges the claim of these being universal human behaviours as it has ignored the dynamic nature of relationship breakdown.Another limitation of the evolutionary perspective on relationships is that is gender biased. Researcher Hollway (1989) argues that gender differences evident in the relationship behaviour of males and females reflect less the role of evolutionary forces and more the shared cultural discourses of the different sexes. These discourses are patterns of thinking and communication that are common within one gender but not the other within a particular culture. For example, with the ‘male sexual drive’ discourse, a man may be more likely to report greater infidelity.However, Holloway claims this is not because they are like that by ‘nature’, but because there is a cultural discourse that instructs him how to act on the basis of his sex. In the case of breakdowns, gender differences in how an individual reacts may be less determined by our adaptive biology and more to do with what males and females believe is the appropriate way to behave given that they are products of gender-specific socialization within that society. Overall, evolutionary explanations of sex differences in this area represent a gender-biased representation of how males and females behave during relationship break-ups.

Pirates of Silicon Valley Essay

1.) What does this story tells us? What happens in the story? How does it relates us? The Pirates of Silicon Valley is a film about Steve Jobs, the co-founder of Apple Computers and Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft. This film historically traces the development of these two computer companies from the time these two gentlemen are college (the early to mid 1970’s) to approximately 3 months before Steve Jobs was fired by John Sculley, then CEO of Apple Computer in 1985. This story shows not only the development of these two computer companies, but also the rivalry between Steve Jobs and Bill Gates. It highlights the computer giants of that time, who were Hewlett Packard, Xerox and IBM. However, the idea of the personal computer was just gaining speed and this is where both Steve Jobs and Bill Gates found their niche. What many people don’t know about these revolutionaries is that they worked together until Steve Jobs realized that Bill Gates developed Windows from software Apple had designed for their computers. Why is it called â€Å"Pirates of Silicon Valley?† The irony of this situation is that Apple stole the â€Å"windows concept† from Xerox; hence the title, â€Å"The pirates  of Silicon Valley†. Silicon Valley is an area of northern California where the computer development of the 1980’s and 1990’s surged. The button line of the story it relates the sad facts that Steve Jobs had disaffected so many of his former best friends that none of them wanted to toast him for his 30th birthday, in fact, three months later Steve Jobs was fired from the company he helped found. He was later re-hired in 1997 and became the architect of the second Apple Microsoft co-endeavor bringing the companies and the movie full circle. Even though Steve Jobs was fired from the company, it was then not a waste because he was happily living with his family. This film is a wonderful illustration of modern day entrepreneurs and gives us an inside look at the management style of both Steve Jobs and Bill Gates.I would recommend this film to anyone, student or not. It is an enlightening depiction of the evolution of a true phenomenon, the age of personal computers. Even more so, this film shows the men behind the machines, a story that shouldn’t be missed. 2.) This tech-world biopic traces the fortunes of personal-computer companies Apple and Microsoft from their obscure dorm-room and backyard origins to their very public battle for corporate supremacy. Writer/director Martyn Burke follows the parallel lives of Microsoft founder Bill Gates (Anthony Michael Hall) and Apple co-founders Steve Jobs (Noah Wyle) and Steve Wozniak (Joey Slotnick) — the former a crafty Harvard dropout, the latter a pair of hippies with jobs at Hewlett-Packard and a yen to sell miniature versions of corporate mainframes to small businesses and at-home enthusiasts. Much like the personal-computer industry itself, the action starts with Apple then gradually shifts to Microsoft. The former plot thread recounts how Jobs and Wozniak â€Å"borrowed† key concepts from a Xerox computer lab, eked out their success as countercultural businessmen, and finally fell out with one another over the pressure of success. The latter thread focuses on the way Gates learned from, then surpassed, the brains behind Apple and turned his company into the global powerhouse that it is today. Based on Paul Freiberger andMichael Swaine’s Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, the film actually focuses only on that book’s final chapters. Produced for cable channel TNT, Pirates of Silicon Valley debuted June 18, 1999. ~ Brian J. Dillard, Rovi 3.) The film opens with the creation of the 1984 commercial for Apple Computer, which introduced the first Macintosh. Steve Jobs (Noah Wyle) is speaking with director Ridley Scott (J. G. Hertzler), trying to convey his idea that â€Å"We’re creating a completely new consciousness.† Scott, however, is more concerned at the moment with the technical aspects of the commercial. The film then flashes forward to 1997 as Jobs, who has returned to Apple, is announcinga new deal with Microsoft at the 1997 Macworld Expo. His partner, Steve Wozniak (Joey Slotnick), is introduced as one of the two central narrators of the story. Wozniak notes to the audience the resemblance between â€Å"Big Brother† and the image of Bill Gates(Anthony Hall) on the screen behind Jobs during this announcement. Asking how they â€Å"got from there to here,† the film turns to flashbacks of his youth with Jobs, prior to the forming of Apple. The first flashback of the film takes place on the U.C. Berkeley campus during the period of the early 1970s student movements. Jobs and Wozniak are shown caught on the campus during a riot between students and police. They flee and after finding safety, Jobs states to Wozniak, â€Å"Those guys think they’re revolutionaries. They’re not revolutionaries, we are.† Wozniak then comments that â€Å"Steve was never like you or me. He always saw things differently. Even when I was in Berkeley, I would see something and just see kilobytesor circuit boards while he’d see karma or the meaning of the universe.† Using a similar structure, the film next turns to a young Bill Gates at Harvard University, in the early 1970s, with classmate Steve Ballmer (John DiMaggio), and Gates’ high school friend Paul Allen (Josh Hopkins). As with Wozniak in the earlier segment, Ballmer narrates Gates’ story, particularly the moment when Gates discovers the existence of Ed Roberts’ (Gailard Sartain) MITS Altair (causing him to drop out of Harvard). Gates’ and Allen’s early work with MITS is juxtaposed against the involvement of Jobs and Wozniak with theHomebrew Computer Club, eventually leading to the development of the Apple I in 1976 with the help of angel investor Mike Markkula(Jeffrey Nordling). The story follows the protagonists as they develop their technology and their businesses. At a San Francisco computer fair where the Apple II computer is introduced, Gates (the then-unknown Microsoft CEO), attempts to introduce himself to Jobs, who snubs him. This is followed by the development of the IBM-PC with the help of Gates and Microsoft in 1981. It also follows Jobs’ relationship with his high school girlfriend (Gema Zamprogna) and the difficulties he had acknowledging the birth and existence of their daughter, Lisa. Around the time his daughter was born, Jobs unveiled his next computer, which he named, The Lisa. The Lisa was then followed in 1984 by the Macintosh, a computer inspired by the Xerox Alto. The main body of the film finally concludes with a birthday toast in 1985 to Steve Jobs shortly before he was fired by CEO John Sculley (Allan Royal) from Apple Computer. It also includes a brief epilogue, noting what happened afterward in the lives of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. The movie ends with Steve Jobs returning to Apple after its acquisition of NeXT Computer, and Bill Gates appearing live via satellite at a MacWorld Expo in 1997, during Jobs’ first Stevenote keynote address, to announce an alliance between Apple and Microsoft. 4.) Summary: This movie showed the progression of the computer since the 1970’s. It also shows the competition between IBM. Bill Gates, and Steve Jobs. The movie gives a real life perspective of the struggles they faced in their personal lives and the struggles they went through within their companies. Jobs started constructing computers with his partner, Wozniak, in a small garage, while Gates began building computer software in a motel warehouse. Jobs became more successful than Gates in the beginning when he created the Apple Company and was making new computers almost every year. Although Steve Jobs had great marketing skills, he treated his employees horrible. They worked extremely long hours and when he got mad, he would take it out on them. Gates was a lot more laid back with his employees. Throughout the movie Gates and Jobs tried their hardest to make their companies better than the others. Apple was more focused on creating the computers themselves and Microsoft was eager to design the actual software and hard drives that were being put into the computers. At one point in the movie Bill Gates saw what Jobs’ was doing and wanted to make his prototype his own. He convinced Steve Jobs to let him work for Apple only later to find out that Gates stole the computer information and redesigned it to create his own computer and sell it to other marketers. After stealing Job’s ideas, Bill Gates became one of the richest men in the world. At one point in the career of Apple, Steve Jobs was fired only to return a few years later with an attitude adjustment. In the end, both companies became very successful but neither were able to gain each others full trust and merge into one large company. Thoughts: I liked this movie a lot because it was very informative but also very interesting. It was inspirational to see two different companies that started out as nothing becomes something so big. Both Steve Jobs and Bill Gates were incredibly intelligent people who had their own strengths and weaknesses. Though they were great marketers, I don’t think I would be able to work for either of them. Steve Jobs treated his employees so cruelly while Bill Gates was so brilliant he might be hard to keep up with. Steve Jobs took more risks and developed things more quickly while Bill Gates took his time and in the long run came out ahead. I think they should make a sequel to this movie and show how much farther computers have come today.

Essay Sample on How to Solve a Financial Problem

Essay Sample on How to Solve a Financial Problem Problem solving forms part of thinking. Well thought-out the most difficult of all rational functions, problem solving has been distinct as advanced classify cognitive development that requires the accent and control of more routine or fundamental skills. It occurs if an organism or an artificial intelligence system does not know how to proceed from a given state to a desired goal state. Its part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem solving. (Engel, 68) Complex problems have some classic distinctiveness such as lack of precision of the situation where by one does not understand the problem. Some problems require numerous goals to be dealt with, thus become difficult to handle. Some are so complex that they are in large number of items, interrelations and require a lot of conclusion. (ibid, 78) For example when am faced with a financial problem, I always resolve the limitation by first identifying the nature of the problem. Despite the fact that I cannot solve a problem without knowing exactly what the problem is, many people try to do just that. When asked about their financial situation, most will say, the problem is I need more money. They jump immediately to attempting to solve a problem they have not yet clearly defined. In order to gain clarity about my overall situation, I gather all the facts and figures I need to answer the following questions: What is my net worth? What is my current income? What are my expenses? Exactly how much do I owe? What is my credit rating? What interest rates am I paying on loan balances? When are my payments due? Are my expenses higher than my income? How much money do I need? By when do I need it? Answering these questions may be the last thing I want to do, however most of the time I experience a sense of relief when I finish. I might even find things are not as bad as I imagined. (Frensch and Funke, 112) The second step is to come up with all solutions. I immediately engrave down all that comes to mind. I do not critic or critique my ideas because that could suspend my inspired flow. I therefore use my intelligence by letting it reach for new potential. (ibid, 121) The third step is selecting a resolution. Afterwards I go over my catalog and cross things off that do not appear realistic. I choose the solution that makes the most sense for the moment. With money problem solving, I may decide to act on more than one solution as long as the options I choose do not take me in different directions. (Frensch and Funke, 126) The fourth step is receiving achievement. In this point of the progression, I will have the energy curving in my support. I there fore follow through on the resolution or solutions I chose. If I find my self besieged with all the action items, I go back over my list and prioritize. In regular problem solving I would focus on one solution because scattering my efforts by trying to follow through on too many ideas at once can hamper my effectiveness. (ibid, 130) The fifth step is evaluation. If the problem is solved, I celebrate my success if it did. I use this experience to strengthen my commitment to utilizing my problem solving skills in other areas of my life. (Frensch and Funke, 132) If my solution or solutions did not work, I might not have correctly identified the problem. Identifying the problem is the most important step. Most people will want to go back to brainstorming more solutions, which will unavoidably lead to more frustration. Instead, I go back to step one, and focus on identifying the problem. (ibid, 133)

How to Get Results from Email Marketing with Kim Courvoisier [PODCAST]

How to Get Results from Email Marketing with Kim Courvoisier [PODCAST] How’s your email marketing going? As one of the most effective ways to reach your audience, your outgoing emails are something to focus on this year. If you aren’t sure how to handle this essential part of your marketing strategy, you’re not alone! Getting it all under control can lead to more opens, clicks and conversions, so you’re not going to want to miss this episode. Today’s guest, Kim Courvoisier, is the director of content marketing and social media at Campaign Monitor. One of her specialties is designing successful email marketing campaigns, and today she is going to share her wisdom with all of us. If you’re hoping to build traffic and increase conversions, you’re in for a treat. Some of the topics you’ll hear about include: Information about Campaign Monitor and what Kim does there. Some great email list-building tactics that you can put into practice, what to focus on first, and why email blasts are a thing of the past. How to boost the chances that your target audience will open your emails and make a great first impression with your subject lines. Why personalized content and videos are important when your goal is to generate more clicks. An example of what the workflow looks like when creating email campaigns and how to keep your team organized as you carry it out. Powered by PodcastMotor Actionable Content Marketing powered by By 00:00/00:00 1x 100 > Download file Subscribe on iTunes Leave Review Share

Muhammad by karen armstrong Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Muhammad by karen armstrong - Essay Example Hira outside Mecca where he frequented for meditation. He claimed to have been called to rebuke the pagans of Mecca who worshiped idols and engaged in unclean superstitions and rituals (Armstrong, p. 24). It is noteworthy that when he was growing up as an orphan with his uncle Abu Talib, he was a person of integrity in his business dealings and was truthful. It is said that in Mecca, he was known as Sadiq and Ameen meaning true and trusty respectively. The Quran also gives credit to his upright character by saying that in him there is a perfect example for people to follow in their conduct. The prophet had been sent to reform the pagans in Mecca who had no regard for even the most basic of human rights. They engaged in disputes and long battles over small matters. They did not treat women well and hated the birth of female children to the extent that they would kill or bury them alive. The poor people were voiceless and were exploited through loans that required payment of high interests. There was torture and killing of slaves with no consequence. The Prophet despised slavery. Abuse of human rights, social injustice and worship of the idols in homes and in the house of God built by Abraham, Kabah were the order of the day in Meca. Despite watching helplessly as all this was going on, he refused to bow down to the idols (Armstrong, p. 41). He married Khadijah, an affluent businesswoman for whom he had worked for some time. He was 25 when he married her, something that made him financial stability. He helped free Zaid ibn Harithah, a slave from Khadijah’s house, and adopted him. He paid for an African slave named Bilal and had him freed. Bilal remained with Mohammed for the next 22 years until he died. During all this time, Bilal would eat and dined with the Prophet and was given the role of the Muazzin meaning caller for prayers (Armstrong, p. 57). He always taught forgiveness and compassion. After his return from exile in Medina, he came back

Critically analyse approaches to market segmentation that can be Essay

Critically analyse approaches to market segmentation that can be applied to the fashion retail sector - Essay Example Besides, clothing for every season is being produced to suit every market and every generation. This enhances the importance of market segmentation in the fashion retail sector. This essay will critically analyze the approaches that can be applied to the retail fashion sector. The fashion retail industry in UK is turbulent as the fashion conscious consumers expect and thrive for constant change. This requires proper market segmentation so that retailers are in a position to satisfy individual customer needs. The fashion retail market is split into number of segments – luxury, high street and supermarket/out-of-town discounter (Bruce & Daly, 2006). With the supermarkets having entered the clothing sector, the fashion retail has been redefined. It enables the time-starved consumers to purchase cheap clothing instead of visiting high street. Different retailers adopt a different segmentation strategy depending on the market and the products they have on offer. Segmentation according to Bond and Morris (2003) can either be attitudinal or latent class segmentation. Consumers have different attitudes and these lead to different behavior but this does not apply to the retail fashion sector where customer preferences change by the season. Results on the basis of attitudinal segmentation have been very flat. Latent class segmentation differentiates people on the basis of the degree of their perception of brand, price promotion, sales personnel and product line. Segmenting on this basis gives a better cluster solution which is more robust than based on attitudes. Market positioning strategies are developed by retailers based on product, price and service provision. Store images assist the retailers in determining the positioning strategies (Birtwistle, Clarke & Freathy, 1998). The retailers project an image which matches the targeted customers’ self-image world, which increases customer loyalty. The store image is linked to customer